Agriculture and the Osiris Myth in Ancient Egypt

Agriculture and the Osiris Myth
In Upper Egypt, therefore, there is evidence of a belief in the afterlife and an indication that many of the Egyptian animals that were to become dynastic gods were, if not yet revered, at least highly regarded. The Delta, on the other hand, yields the earliest evidence of agriculture and indication of ancestor worship, and here the most important legendary figure of ancient Egyptian history that of Osiris developed.

Ancient Egyptian Agriculture

The famous Osiris God myth is believed in its original form to have been devised to spread an understanding of agriculture throughout the land, explained in terms of the death and rebirth of the corn god. Osiris was probably an early leader in one of the settlements of the Delta who had quite a large following. When he died he became identified with the totem of the area which developed, like many other totems, into a harvest god. Osiris God adopted some of the regalia of the older deity including a crown with double plumes and a shepherd’s crook, and the agricultural cycle became his domain. He was revered as a god associated with water and the annual death and rebirth of the land.

The Osiris God myth underwent many changes with the passage of time. In one form it relates how Osiris ruled the land justly with his wife Isis at his side. He taught his people, as yet partly civilised, the art of making agricultural implements and controlling the waters of the Nile. He also taught them how to take to a corn diet, produce bread, wine and beer. His wife Isis was equally loved and taught the people how to grind corn, weave linen and, with her devotion to her husband, intimated the benefits of domestic life.

Osiris had a brother, Set, who was jealous of his popularity and secretly aspired to his position of favour. Inviting Osiris God to a banquet, Set tricked him into entering a coffin specially designed to fit him alone. No sooner had Osiris obliged than Set hastily sealed it with molten lead and cast it on the waters of the Nile where it was borne northwards by the currents to the marshes of the Delta. Isis, grieved by the news of her husband, set off in search of his body. She cut off a lock of her hair and rent her robes in torment as she went on her way following the course of the river. She eventually found the body entangled in the branches of a tamarisk bush. She extracted it and hid it. Unfortunately, Set was boar-hunting and discovered the body, which he brutally hacked into fourteen pieces and scattered throughout the land. The bereft Isis, this time accompanied by her sister Nephthys, once again set out on her search. They found the pieces of Osiris’ body, carefully collected them and laid them in a coffin, crooning sorrowful incantations over them to make the body whole.

Ancient Egyptian Agriculture

It is probable that the concept of Osiris God  falling victim to Set was a comprehensible explanation of the fertile land (with which Osiris was associated) falling victim to the relentless desert (of which Set was the chief deity). The mutilation of the body of Osiris, the corn god, and the scattering of parts up and down the Nile valley, is believed to illustrate the concept of grain sowing, following which, with the necessary incantations, or rural festivals, the stalks of corn would grow again. Be that as it may, the cultivation and storage of grain was a vital factor in the movement away from primitive society towards civilisation. It was a gradual phase of human development. For the assurance of larger quantities of food and food surpluses led to a decline in hunting as an economic activity. Larger groups of people, not all of whom could be crop-growers, were assured of a regular Egyptian food supply and could settle down. Craft specialisation was a direct outcome, since it absorbed the surplus labour. From the simple technology of the hunters and fishermen we see improved production of weapons, tools and implements and the emergence of new industries including flint mining and flaking.

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Agriculture in Ancient Egypt

Agriculture
The bulk of the population, however, was employed on the land or in Egyptian agriculture-related industries like viticulture, papyrus-manufacture, spinning and weaving. The agricultural cycle comprised three seasons. The Akhet, the season of the inundation, which began on 19 July, the Perit (‘going out’), the season for ploughing and sowing which began on 15 November, and Shemu, the harvest, which began on 16 March.

Agriculture in Ancient Egypt

With the rise of the Nile the peasants made sure that their cattle were safely housed on dry land and, with agricultural activities suspended, cared for them and provided them with food already laid in storage. They carefully directed the water from the main canals to smaller branches transversing the fields in straight or curved lines, and controlled it by means of embankments. When the water level began to fall these natural reservoirs retained a residue of mineral-rich sediment which was ready to receive seed without further preparation. Thrown on the surface the seed was usually trodden by goats. Where, however, the earth dried hard, a plough was used. The hoe, one of the most ancient of agricultural tools consisted of a broad, pointed blade of wood attached to a handle at an acute angle and held in position in the centre by a slack rope. The plough was a hoe enlarged by adding two long wooden arms on which the ploughman could lean to keep the furrow straight and also to pressure the blade into the soil. A pole was provided with a yoke for attaching to draught Egyptian animals.

Although the Nile valley and the Delta were fertile, full exploitation of the land only came with unremitting toil. Naturally the peasants, from centuries of experience, had gradually become aware of the potential. They had determined the most suitable times for sowing and reaping, and the most rewarding systems of irrigation for the different areas. In the Egyptian temple of the 5th-dynasty pharaoh Nyuserre the life of the peasant is depicted during the seasonal operations throughout the course of a single year. From these and from scenes in the tombs of noblemen it is clear that the harvest was the season of most strenuous activity. The ripened corn was reaped with the aid of a sickle, placed in sacks and loaded on to donkeys to be carried to the threshing floor. The ears of corn were then taken from the sacks and piled in heaps to be trodden by oxen, goats or donkeys. The threshed grain was piled in a heap by means of three-pronged forks and sifted and winnowed by two small boards or scoops. The latter were used in pairs for tossing the unhusked grain into the wind. Finally the grain was placed in sacks by women and transported to the granary.

Flour was ground by placing grain at the upper end of a slightly hollowed, slanting slab of limestone and sliding a crossbar of sandstone across it. The ground flour gradually worked downwards and was caught in a tray at the lower end.

Flax was also cultivated in large quantities. It was harvested at different times for different purposes: when ripe, the fibres tough, it was suitable for mats and ropes. If cut when the stems were green, it could be woven into fine soft cloth: some of the surviving remnants show that the fabric was sometimes of such gossamer fineness as to be almost indistinguishable from silk. This was particularly the case with royal linen, though coarser textiles were woven on a more widespread scale. Weaving was carried out by women, who also made tapestries. The latter were either for hanging on the walls of Egyptian noblemen’s villas, or to form the shade of a roof garden.

Viticulture was one of the most highly developed, as well as one of the earliest, industries. The first wine-press hieroglyphic dates from the Egyptian 1st dynasty, and there is evidence that even from this early date wine was transported across the country in sealed jars. Grapes were plucked by hand, placed in vats and trodden until the liquid ran through holes into a waiting container. Fermentation probably occurred naturally, due both to the method of pressing and the high summer temperature. Date-palm wine was also produced.

Ancient Egyptian Agriculture

 The manufacture of papyrus paper was another flourishing industry. The papyrus, sliced into thin sections, was laid side by side and crosswise, soaked and compressed. Beating and drying turned it into sheets of durable paper. Two rolls of papyrus in a box dating to the reign of the Egyptian 1st dynasty pharaoh Udimu are evidence of how early it was produced. Ships trading with the Phoenician coast carried bales of this essentially Egyptian product as cargo. The papyrus plant served many purposes: the stalks were woven and used as mats, the vegetable fibres were transformed into a pliable, tough material suitable for sandals, and lightweight skiffs for hunting in the marshes were made by binding long bundles together.

Veterinary medicine was practised by the peasants and the obvious health of the herds indicates proficient rearing. It was a talent handed from father to son. In the Egyptian tomb of Ptahhotep a scene shows a cow giving birth with the aid of a veterinary surgeon who gently guides the calf into the world. The ancient Egyptians knew their animals intimately, took great Egyptians care of them and often fed them by hand. In the tomb of Ti a cow is being milked by a cowherd while the overseer leans on his staff watching. Though there are scenes of herdsmen driving rams across a canal with raised whip, none shows an animal being beaten.

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Indoor Games in Ancient Egypt

Indoor Games
The ancient Egyptians were also imaginative in their indoor recreation. A favourite game appears to have been similar to draughts, played on a rectangular board divided into thirty or thirty-three squares. Carved black and white pawns were used. Though the Egyptian players have been depicted facing each other, there is no indication of the rules of the game. The earliest gaming piece (in the shape of a house with sloping roof) was found in the tomb of the 1st-dynasty pharaoh Udimu (Den). Pre-dynastic (Before Egyptian Dynasty)  ‘pieces’ of clay coated with wax were, however, found with a checker-board table of unbaked clay held up by four thick short legs and divided into 19 squares on the surface.

A game which appears to have been popular in the Egyptian Old Kingdom was played with a series of discs about 4-5 inches in diameter, made in wood, horn, ivory, stone and copper, each with a hole in the centre through which a 6 inch pointed stick was inserted. These were usually found alongside wooden trays which unfortunately all perished, leaving us with no indication of how the game was played. Perhaps the stick was rotated between the palms of the hands to make the discs spin like a top.

Some of the Egyptian Old Kingdom games did survive its fall. One such was played on a low table, its surface displaying an engraved or inlaid coiled snake, the head situated at the centre of the board and the body divided into transverse lines forming segments. The ‘pieces’ for this game comprised three lions, three lionesses and five red-and-white balls; these were kept in an ebony box when the game was over. Many ist-and 2nd- dynasty tombs have yielded these.

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Outdoor Sport in Ancient Egypt

Outdoor Sport
Hunting was popular among all classes. The pharaoh Sahure is depicted hunting gazelle, antelope, deer and other animals. Most of the noblemen may be seen pursuing wild Egyptian game and capturing different species. And the working classes chased gazelle, oryx, wild oxen, hares and ostrich with equal enthusiasm. Long bow and arrow, lasso, throwing sticks and bola were the most common hunting weapons. The bow was no more than 3 feet in length and the arrows, carried in leather quivers, came in several varieties; the one preferred for hunting (which survived into the Egyptian New Kingdom) had an agate arrowhead cemented to a sturdy, usually ebony, stick which was fitted into a hollow reed shaft. The latter was decorated with two feathers and notched for the bowstring.

Considerable ability must have been required in the handling of the throwing stick, numerous specimens of which may be found in most of the museums of the world. They, too, varied in shape, some being semi-circular and others ending in a knob. The bola consisted of a rope or strap about 16 feet long with a single rounded stone attached to the end. When thrown, the cord would twist round the legs or neck of the Egyptian animal and hinder its movement; a good hunter could bring down an animal by his strength. The lasso differed from the bola in having no stone attached: the noose would merely be thrown round the neck of the running victim gazelle, wild goat, water-buck, and ostrich.

Hunting scenes were extremely spirited, showing the hunter enthusiastically pursuing game in an obvious display of pleasure. Some scenes indicate how bait was used. In tomb of Ptahhotep pharaoh the muzzle of a young tethered heifer is being seized in the jaws of a lion, which a hunter points out to his two hounds before setting them loose. Hounds were specially trained for hunting and following wounded beasts. Every effort seems to have been made to save them from being hurt and to capture game alive. Ptahhotep is depicted watching men dragging cages containing lion, a frame with gazelles bound together in groups, and smaller cages containing hedgehogs. Sometimes a hunter, perhaps after killing its mother, would take a young gazelle back to the village in ancient Egypt.

The ancient Egyptians were avid fishermen. After the waters of the annual flood receded, ponds were left in the open country. These, as well as the canals and the river, yielded an inexhaustible supply of mullet, catfish, telapia, perch, barbel and other varieties of fish. The upper classes penetrated deeply into the thickets in their firmly constructed papyrus skiffs, their feet squarely placed on the central plank. They pursued fish with spears sometimes two-pronged but never angled. The crew, on the other hand, sometimes speared fish like their masters but more often angled from small boats, using as many as six hooks on a single line. Drag-nets were drawn from the shore in small canals, trawl-nets were used in larger canals and rivers, and trap-nets were also used. These were wicker-like baskets with narrow necks, sometimes curving inwards; when dropped in shallow water, the fish would be attracted to the bait and swim inside but could not emerge. Hippo-hunting with spears was popular among all classes.

The familiarity of the ancient Egyptians with bird life is particularly apparent from the Ti's Tomb, where various species of the marshes are depicted in families near their nests, each drawn with characteristic features and easily identifiable (although not drawn to scale). They include quail, partridge, heron, pelican, turtledove, magpie, swallow, wild duck and goose, among others, and wading in the reedy swamps near the river are flamingoes, pelicans and cormorants. In fact indigenous and migratory waterfowl were so plentiful that the ancient Egyptians likened a crowd to a bird pond during the inundation. Birds were most often caught in clap-nets. Hunting them with a throw-stick was also an extremely popular sport which needed skill; the hunter, often accompanied by his wife, children and servants, had to stand firmly in his boat with legs wide apart and, whilst maintaining his balance, fling the missile at the fowl as they took to the air. Some of the men with him hold decoy-birds, indicating that the Ipoat made its way quietly through the thickets to creep up on the fowl. Mongooses were trained to catch small aquatic birds, considered a great delicacy.

It is not surprising, in view of the warm weather and the proximity of the river, that the ancient Egyptians were swimmers from early times. A hieroglyph of the name of a man, depicted on an Old Kingdom offering-table, shows a man swimming, and it is evident from this and other representations that the crawl stroke was common to them. Learning to swim may, indeed, have been necessary training for children among the upper classes, for a biographical inscription of a Egyptian Middle Kingdom nobleman referred to the encouragement his pharaoh gave him and declared that as a youth ‘he caused me to take swimming lessons along with the royal children’.

In many ancient Egyptian tombs the owner is depicted watching boatmen’s games which may have been either an exhibition contest or a race. Light reed boats, often filled with produce, were punted in the same direction. Meanwhile two or three men stood in each boat equipped with long poles with which they tried to push their opponents into the water. They would then either board the ‘enemy’ boat or tip it over.

In the ancient Egyptian tombs of the Old Kingdom only children (identified by the side-lock of youth) are depicted playing games, whilst in the Middle Kingdom young men and women are also shown in sports activities. Moreover, in the Old Kingdom most of the games are played by boys and, with few exceptions, boys and girls did not play together. A game requiring skill was played by boys with sharp pointed sticks which they raised and threw at a target on the ground between them. A ‘tug-of-war’ trial of strength was accompanied by such inscriptions as ‘Your arm is much stronger than his’, ‘My team is stronger than yours’ and ‘Hold fast comrades.’ Boys played a high-jump game, leaping over an obstacle formed by two of their comrades sitting opposite each other with soles of the feet and tips of the fingers touching. In another game a boy kneels on the ground with one leg outstretched; his comrades endeavour to touch him lightly with their feet while avoiding his hands. Whoever he catches takes his place on the ground.

A girls’ game is depicted in Pharaoh Mereruka’s tomb: two players in the centre hold either two or four partners with outstretched arms; the latter lean outwards so that only their heels touch the ground. The text reads: ‘Turn around four times.’ Though there are no murals of children playing ball in the Old Kingdom, balls have been found, even in prehistoric graves. Some were covered in leather, cut into sections, sewn together and filled with fine straw or reeds. Others were made of wood or clay, in one or more colours.

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Commerce and Food in Ancient Egypt

The Commerce of the Ancient Egypt, c. 1000
al-Muqaddasi

Egypt is a country of commerce; it is an important source of very fine leather, resistant to water, sturdy, and pliant; leather of sheep and asses’ skins, leggings and cloth of three-ply yams of camels’ hair and goats’ wool all these are from the metropolis. From Upper Egypt come rice, wool, dates, vinegar, raisins. From Tinnis . . . cloth variegated in colour; from Dimyat, sugar cane. From al-Fayyum, rice, and a linen of inferior quality; from Busir, shrimp, and cotton of superior quality. From al-Farma, fish, and from the towns around it, large baskets, and ropes made of fibre of the finest quality. Here are produced white cloth of the greatest fineness, wraps, canvas, the mats of ‘Abbadani style of very fine quality, grains, grass peas, oils of rape, and of jasmine, and of other plants beside these.

Ancient Egypt Commerce

Their specialities include reedpens incomparable! and their vitriol, marble, vinegar, wool, canvas, cloth, linen, leathers, shoes, leggings, geese, plantains, wax, sugar candy, fine linen, dyes, apparel, spun yam, waterskins, harisa, the sweet pastry called nayda, chick peas, lupin, cloves, amm, mats, asses, cattle, girdles . . . . Ancient Egypt Commerce.

The Food of the Ancient Egypt, c. 1200
Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi

Ancient Egypt Food

... In Egypt they extract oil from the seeds of the radish, tthe urnip, and the lettuce and use it for cooking. They also make soap from these oils; the soap made in Egypt is soft, red, yellow and green. It is this soap that the sweetmeat sapouniyyeh appears to have some resemblance, and from that it takes its name.

As for the stews of the Egyptians, those which are sour or ordinary have nothing in particular, or very little, different from those used elsewhere; but, on the contrary their sweet stews are of a singular kind, for they cook a chicken with all sorts of sweet substances. Here is how they prepare this ancient Egypt Food: they boil a fowl, then put it in a julep, place under it crushed hazelnuts or pistachio nuts, poppy seeds or purslane seeds, or rose hips, and cook the whole until coagulated. Then they add spices and remove it from the fire. . . .

As for the sweetmeats, these are indeed various and would need a special book to describe them. There are some kinds which are employed as curatives for certain ailments, and which are given to persons on a diet, the sick, and to convalescent persons, when they want something sweet to eat. Of this number are the khabis of pumpkin, khabis of carrot, the sweet called wardiyyeh in which the rose enters, that called zindjebiliyyeh which is made with ginger, the pastilles of aloes wood and of lemon, of musk, and many others .... ancient Egypt food .

Travelers in Egypt often wrote of the costume of the people for the Europeans, so very different to their own. The Arabic scholar, Edward Lane, sought to understand the purpose of the dress of the better-off males, Dr. Meryon described the simple clothes of the poorer women, while Elizabeth Cooper was fascinated by the lives of women of means.

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Ancient Egyptian Music

Facts and Secrets about Ancient Egyptian Musical Instruments
It virtually appears unusual which you will need to learn because a lot because some of us do regarding ancient Egyptian musical as well as simultaneously come with minimal or perhaps not an concept of its actual nature. You come with texts, representations plus additionally extant instruments however, practically practically nothing found on the actual musical compositions that have been made up.

Ancient Egyptian flute

Musical instruments ranged taken from simple, for instance percussion instruments, that would really sophisticated, like harps. A number of instruments happened to be strictly (at the least when it comes to design) Egyptian, while some apparently came in order to Egypt within the Near East. Needless to say, the actual almost all simple instruments happened to be percussion and then the most straight-forward of these happened to be human hands, selected for clapping. Clapping in order to musical is actually frequently displayed by singers depicted throughout Age-old Kingdom tombs, and additionally actually now continues to be a particular significant aspect of contemporary Egyptian musical. But, the particular earliest instruments inside evidence are generally boomerang-shaped clappers, that are not merely recognized within Egypt and taken from southern Palestine because early because the entire fifth millennium BC. For the duration of

Clappers within the shape of hands
the actual pharaonic period, clappers happened to be usually decorated alongside hands or simply Hathor faces. Generally there happened to be in addition small clappers or simply castanets. But unfortunately, drums didn't really occur till the actual Center Kingdom. Initially, many of these appear to currently have been drums within the form of the barrel made of hollowed tree trunks that turned into common within military bands.

Drums within the form of the goblet as well as wheel-thrown pots alongside skin covered tops plus open bottoms happened to be introduced about 1750 BC within the Palestinian area. Whenever circular frame drums alongside a skin stretched over a hardwood hoop happened to be introduced throughout the Unique Kingdom, some other types of percussion instruments occur to be able to currently have lost ground. Naturally, there was clearly as well the particular sistrum which had been a metal rattle or simply noisemaker, consisting of an handle along with a frame fitted alongside loosely held rods which may be jingled. Many of these happened to be chosen most notably within the worship of Isis.

Harpest not to mention lute players
At long last, generally there had been virtually absolutely bells, and even throughout the Late Period, Egyptians turned into acquainted alongside symbols consisting of an pair of concave discs pertaining to fifteen centemeters over which were connected in order to the entire player's hand alongside leather straps. Though easy, percussion instruments could certainly create interesting and in addition sophisticated musical, especially in case utilized in ensembles. Specific this big ensemble typically is depicted within the Center Kingdom tomb of the performing teacher called Khesuwer.

He typically is shown training 10 sistrum players not to mention 10 hand clappers whom currently have been organized throughout clean rows, showing a very disciplined overall performance. Regularly, even so, percussion instruments can not create various pitches, and so the utilization of wind then stringed instruments as well was a particular significant aspect of Egyptian singing.

Simultaneously string as well as wind instruments had been utilized by the actual ancient Egyptians because early because the actual Aged Kingdom and even prior to. We are able to accept a wide range of kinds of wind instruments, which includes flutes, parallel double-pipes then divergent double-pipes. Of many of these, the particular flute typically is the particular oldest and even is actually depicted on a predynastic shard along with on a slate palette taken from Hierakonpolis. Therefore, the particular instrument may currently have been invented within Egypt. The particular authentic flutes never disappeared completely and in addition currently have survived to the week underneath the actual Arabic names of nay not to mention uffafa.    

Ancient Egyptian Sistrum

The particular trumpet of Tutankhamun, among the best surviving taken from ancient Egypt a lot more sophisticated instrument that would create ended up being the entire trumpet, for example which found within the tomb of Tutankhamun. Many of these happened to be made from silver plus bronze, alongside mouthpieces of gold and / or silver. The two happened to be occasionally inlaid alongside gold. Trumpets appear to have experienced largely a military incorporate, though the two turned into connected also alongside gods including Amun, Re-Horakhty and in addition Ptah. Though we all select the entire 1st samples of the actual trumpet at the entire starting associated with the Brand new Kingdom, it's quite possible they existed because early because the particular Aged Kingdom. Instruments made of animal horns never develop in almost any reliefs, nevertheless it ought to be noted which indeed there happen to be terracotta models of these instruments dating that would the actual Brand new Kingdom. Stringed instruments largely consisted of lyre, lutes then harps.

Generally there had been 3 kinds of lyre consisting of thin, thick plus large. The actual thin lyre ended up being utilized through out the entire Fat Crescent and then the Egyptian lyres of the design happened to be only the particular southern extension of the shape without nearby qualities. Thin lyres happened to be introduced back into northern Syria about 2500 BC, and then the initially depictions within Egypt which we all recognize go out with in order to about 1900 BC. The two turned into typical when it comes to Egypt with regards to five 100 many years later on.

Ostracon taken from Deir el-Medina showing a woman lute player taken from a unusual potential Thick lyre alongside bigger dimensions and in addition a lot more strings compared to the actual thin range quickly looks inside Anatolia about 1400 BC. Yet, the two had been utilized in Egypt taken from regarding 2000 BC plus back into the particular Greek Period within Egypt. Large lyres were prevalent throughout the reign of Akhenaten. Several had been actually big sufficient that would accommodate double players. Though large lyre players is spotted wearing Canaanite costumes, right now there are generally not an large lyres still recognized within the Palestinian area. Even so, throughout Mesopotamia, large lyres usually are recognized taken from engraved seals found at Uruk not to mention Susa which go out with that would about 2500 BC.

Lutes, like mandolins, created their presentation with regard to Egypt throughout the Hot Kingdom. The two had already attained recognition within the Near East at the entire starting associated with the 2nd millennium BC. Though the two gathered spacious acceptance with regard to Egypt, their make use of ended up being largely abandoned throughout the Hellenistic age, merely that would reappear when a lot more shortly after the entire Muslim invasion of Egypt within the mid-seventh century Advertisement. Lutes had been regularly prepared alongside a lengthy oval resonating human body made of lumber not to mention most likely partially covered alongside leather and in addition partially by a thin sheet of lumber alongside a starting in order to let go of the entire sound.

A lot of the instruments had been patterned shortly after examples found elsewhere within the Near East, because happened to be stringed instruments like the actual lyres and additionally lutes. Though, though the actual harp tends in order to initial look inside Mesopotamia with regard to with regards to 3000 BC, the actual harps which showed up with regard to Egypt with regard to 2500 BC consume on a form which is actually uniquely Egyptian. Stringed instruments happened to be a lot more sophisticated compared to either percussion and / or wind instruments, and even lots of had been indeed finely created alongside valuable components. For instance, we all fully understand which King Ahmose possessed a harp made from ebony, gold not to mention silver, whilst Tuthmosis III commissioned "a splendid harp wrought alongside silver, gold, lapis lazuli, malachite, then each and every splendid expensive stone."

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Ancient Egyptian Religion and Afterlife Part 2/2

Ancient Egyptian Afterlife Facts and Secrets
Among the popular cults at Deir el-Medina, and one which spread throughout the West Bank and later the whole of Egypt, was that of the deified Pharaoh Amenophis I and his mother Ahmes-Nefertari. The reason fir the spread of his worship beyond his official mortuary temple was initially that he was the first ruler to be buried how in the Vally of the Kings and had formed the group of artisans who were later to live at Deir El-Medina. He became the patron dirty of the craftsmen and was seen as an intermediary between men and the gods. His main shrine was in the village, but there were at least five others scattered round the West Bank. Each of these had its own statue of the king, which differed slightly from the others in type and dress, These developed into different forms of the god, each with its own epithet, such as 'Amenophis of the Forecourt' and 'Amenophis Favorite(of Amun). Other deceased rulers were the object of similar cults in various locations, but none of them had the success of Amenophis I.

Afterlife Egypt

On of the main functions of the various forms of Amenophis I was the provision of oracles. In this he was not unique, for many gods provided oracular reposes, but Amenophis I is one of the best attested and provides a good example of the procedures involved. The custom of seeking an oracle developed only in the New Kingdom, as part of the growing belief in a personal relationship with the gods, who, it was thought, might be willing to show an active interest i human affairs. The evidence indicates that most oracular response were sought and received when the image of the god was carried out in procession. The statue of the deity was carried on the shoulders of specially purified laymen, while priests walked alongside on attendance. In many cases the statue of the god was not visible but hidden in its shrine, although Amenophis I was carried openly for the people to see.

The applicant approached the god with his question, either spoken or offered in writing on papyrus us an Ostracon the. The range of questions varied enormously. Enquirers about health, job opportunities and absent relatives and friends were common. The god was also frequently asked to settle disputes, which more properly belonged on a court of law, but these instances may have been ones which a court was not able to settle. An example appears on an Ostracon dating to the reign of Ramses IV. A workman named Kenna had rebuilt for him self a ruined house, but when he had completed the work a certain Mersekhmet appeared and claimed that the god Amenophis had decreed that he was to share the house with Kenna, although he had had no part in the rebuilding. Kenna therefore presented his case Amenophis via the scribe Horisheri and the god affirmed his claim to sole occupation of the dwelling.

Amenophis I

The questions put to the oracle were usually phrased in a manner which required a simple yest or no answer. Alternatively, if seeking a guilty party in a crime, a list of names was read out until the god reacted to one of them. The method by which the god gave his response seems to have been that the men carrying the statue were forced by the will of the deity or move forwards or backwards, meaning yes and no respectively.

Another aspect of personal piety which is strongly attested throughout Egypt was ancestor worship. It was the duty of the family to maintain the tombs of its relations, but there were also special festivals for the dead, such as the occasion when the statue of Amun visited the West Bank. Mortuary images were carried in the procession of the god and later returned in the grave, where the family held a private feast . The purpose of these festivals was to renew the spirits of the deceased,, so that they could appear again, like the sun god Ra , every day. For this reason they are called the 'excellent spirits of Ra'. Ancestor worship, however, did not cease at the tomb, for busts of departed relations were kept in the him, in a niche in the main room of the house.

Rooms in the home contained a number of ancestral busts, but also images and stelae of the household deities. These could be any food, with which the inhabitants felt an affinity, but the general deities of him were Bes and Taweret, the pregnant hippopotamus goddess, was largely connected with fertility and childbearing. Bes was a bandy-legged dwarf god with a wide mouth and protruding tongue. He was part lion, for his beard resembled a lion's mane and he had a lion's ears and tail. His role was to bring happiness to the home and to protect it from evil.

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Ancient Egyptian Magic

The Magic in  Ancient Egypt

The power of Bes and Taweret in the house hold was amuletic and they frequently appear on small plaques and amulets which could be fastened to objects or worn about the person. This amulets role tacks us into the realms of ancient Egyptian magic ,which the ancient Egyptians strongly know and unknown forces of evil. A wide variety of amulets were available to protect the body from harm. Some reproduced hieroglyphic signs with abstract notions of power, such as life, strength, prosperity, stability and beauty, while many others took from of deities. One of the most popular amulets was the udjat-eye of Horus. This was the eye knocked out by Seth and later returned and healed by Thoth. It was a symbol of light and was thought to ward off the evil eye.

udjat-eye of Horus

Two further examples of interest are the cippi of Horus and ancient Egyptian magic wands made of hippopotamus ivory. The purpose of these two amulets was not to protect against unseen forces,cut against the very tangible presence of animals and insects dangerous to man. The cippi of Horus take the form of stelae on which s depicted Horus the Child standing on two crocodiles and holding in his hands harmful creatures such as snakes, scorpions and lions, as well as an oryx gazelle, which was considered to have a baleful influence. Above Horus is a mask of the god Bes to provide additional protection.

The magic hippopotamus wands were designed to combat the approach of poisonous creatures such as snakes and scorpions during the night.They were laid near or under the bed and may have been used to draw ancient Egyptian magic circles round have been used to draw magic circles round it before sleeping. Their power was came party from the material, hippopotamus ivory being considered very potent because of the strength of the animal from which it came.

A number of surviving magical texts on papyrus give us a good idea of how widely ancient Egyptian magic and superstition affected peoples' lives. Each day had attached to it magical significance which made or good, bad, party good or party bad. Calendars were drawn up showing the statues of each day, so that people would know if it was safe to do certain things. The magical import of dreams as a means of divination was also takes seriously. The Dream Book gives an on list of dreams and their meanings for examples, 'if a man sees himself in a dream drinking warm beer: bad, it means suffering will come upon him. If a man sees himself n a dream carving up a female hippopotamus: good, it means a large meal form the palace.'

Another way in which ancient Egyptian magic affected the lives of the ancient Egyptians was in the sphere of medicine was advanced for its time, sceptically in the case of observable ailments and wounds. A number of medical papyri exist in which there is a rational attempt to categorize diseases and which give an almost modern producer for examination, treatments and prognosis. by trial and were the Egyptians learnt the use of many natural drugs and realized the importance or rest and care of the patient , as well as basic hygiene as means of presenting the onset certain propels. Nevertheless, there were many errors and great gaps on their knowledge of the human body and its working. For instance, they released that the heart was the centre off an elaborate series of vessels, but did not realize that it circulated only blood. It was believed that all the main systems of the body passed thought the heart: blood, air, water, never and tendons.

The Magic in  Ancient Egypt

The Egyptians even thorough that the stomach was connected out his heat and of food and its waste entering the circulatory system and polluting the body. The heart was also throat to be the seat of intelligence importance of the brain was not recognized, this organ being discarded as useless during the process of mummification.

Where science failed the medical men, magic took over. The power of suggestion may well have had some effect, but s if else had failed the recitation of a spell could be a source of comfort and hope to the sock. For this reason the medical profession included three frissons of practitioners: surgeon-healers, priest-doctors and pure magician. The nature of these healing spells can be gauged from an example desisted to cure a complainant called 'half-head' which is the origin of the Greek in other words migraine.

This protected by gods and charms, the ancient Egyptians were free to enjoy they bounties if their land.

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Ancient Egyptian Religion and Afterlife Part 1/2

Introduction about Ancient Egyptian Religion
Much is known and has been written about formal ancient Egyptian religion and cults in Ancient Egypt, but the genuine beliefs of the average man are more difficult to identify. Lay people could not enter far into the major temples in order to worship; this was the prerogative of the priests who carried out the set rituals on behalf of the population. Nevertheless,ancient Egyptian religion played a vital part in the everyday life of the Egyptians, for they needed help against the hostile forces of nature which surrounded them and also against machinations of their fellow men. Closely allied with religion at those levels was magic, which was the practical means whereby men could combat these inimical powers.

Religion in ancient Egypt

Although the ordinary person was not allowed to take part in the daily ritual of the State gods, an opportunity for ancient Egyptian religions fervor came during the festivals or coming forth'. When the stature of the deity was carried out in procession, the frenzy that attached itself to the festival of Bast at Bubastis in the Late Period has already been described. In a more serious vein were the mysteries of Osiris a Abydos .these represented the betrayal and murder of the god by his brother Seth, after which there were several days of morning, then followed a funeral procession of the statue of Osiris towards the traditional site of his tomb. At the sire of the murder, the overthrow of Seth and his followers was reenacted, after which Osiris was deemed to have risen again and his image was carried back to the temple amid the rejoicings of the crowd.

At Thebes there were two important festivals, belonging to the god Amun . The first of these was the festival of Opet, in which the statues of Amun , Mut and Khons were taken from their temples at Karnak to Luxor for a 'visit'. They proceeded by divine barque along the Nile, towed by the boats of the king and senior nobles. The procession was a great spectacle and the citizens of Thebes lined the bank for a rare vision of the god. This festival took place at the beginning of he year. Towards the end of the year the statue of Amun was carried across the Nile to the West Bank to visit the mortuary temples of the deceased kings, the ceremony culminating at the temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri. The procession was eagerly followed by the citizens of the West Bank and was probably connected with the worship of dead ancestors in their funerary chapels.

The Egyptians may not have been able to worship the gods directly in their great temples, but they did have small, local shrines in which they could offer a prayer. A number of shrines to Amun are known to have existed on the West Bank, Including one at Deir el-Medina. In that village there were also shrines to Hathor and to Ptah, patron of craftsmen, and other deities worshiped there were Thoth, Re-Harakhty, Khnum, Isis, Osiris and Anubis, as well as foreign gods such as Qadesh and Astarte. Also prominent was the cult of the local goddess Mertseger, who represented The great mountain of the West Bank known as El-Qurn. Evidence shows that the cult of this multitude of Gods was organized by the villagers themselves, although they could no doubt have afforded to support a resident priesthood. This suggests that it was common practice in small communities for the inhabitants it act as their own priests, as a way of achieving closer contact with their gods.

The Deir el-Medina shrines were open for people to drop in to say their own prayers or make an offering. This commonly took from of a votive stele showing the donor worshiping his chosen deity. Around the god a number of ears were often depicted, to make quite sure that the prayer inscribe beneath was heard. These stelae, belonging to the Ramesside period, bear witness to a great upsurge of piety, or at least an increase in the open expression of personal belief, which had previously been committed to writing. One explanation of this phenomenon may be that most of the evidence comes from Deir el-Medina, a community of exceptionally gifted, literate and comparatively well-off artisans, who were more capable and willing to express their beliefs than others at their level of society. On the other hand, Deir el-Medina has been thoroughly excavated, whereas the majority of other village and small town sites, which might yield similar evidence, have nor.

Deir el-Medina

The prayers on these stelae often take the form of a plea for mercy and recognition of the god's power over mankind for good or ill. Afflictions of the body, such as blindness, are frequently attributed to a god as punishment for some transgression against his might. Such a prayer was uttered by the workman Neferabu to the god Ptah :

I am a man who swore falsely to Ptah , Lord of Truth, and he caused me to see darkness by day. I will declare his powers to those who know him and to those who do not know him, to the small and the great. Beware of Ptah, lord pf Truth. Behold! he does not overlook a person's deed.

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Ancient Egyptian Games and Toys

Ancient Egyptian Toys and Games
During a quiets evening at him there were other diversions to entertain the family. Adults could engage in a number of board ancient Egyptian games which were exceedingly popular amongst all walks of lie. The most popular of these, called senet, began in the Predynastic Age and is even now plated in Egypt in recognizable form. The senet board was rectangular and divided into three rows of ten squares, The number of pieces allotted to each player could vary, but seven was usual, The fame began by sitting out the pieces alternately along the first fourteen squares, Movement was in reversed S fashion, the object being to get all one's pieces off the board whilst preventing one's opponent from doing the same, If a piece was blocked it had to return to the start of the board.

Ancient Egyptian Games and Toys

Dice as we know them did not appear ill the Graeco-Roman period, but the ancient Egyptians had alternative methods of moving the pieces. The first of these was a set of sticks, often shaped marked like a human finger. One side of each stick was flat, the other rounded, the sticks were thrown down and the number of flat and round surfaces which landed uppermost was counted. In the modern from the fame the number of flat sides determines the throw and so it may have been in antiquity. The other for of dice was the astragalus, which was originally a knucklebone from hooved animals, although the distinctive shape was soon copied u other materials, the face in which the astragalus fell again determined the throw.

Another popular game was called 'twenty squares', and is frequently found on the other side if a senet board, the markings were sightly different from those of senet. The middle of the three rows had twelve squares, while flanking it were two rows with four squares at one end and a long strip at the other: The players had five pieces each, which they placed in the empty strip. They began by moving pieces p the four squares to the corner. The object of the fame was to get the pieces safely down the centre row and off the board, As the opposing pieces moved in opposite directions the tactic must have been to block and set back the advancing enemy. This game seems to have entered Egypt from the Near East. Other board ancient Egyptian games are known but the rules by which they played are lost.

Meanwhile, the children could amuse themselves with a variety of toys.

ancient egyptian games and sports

Finally, we may count literature among the diversions of him ancient Egyptians. by no means all the Egyptians were literate. Although a fair number all the Egyptians were literate, although a fair number probably were. These fortunates could read their favorite stories on papyrus rolls or on ostraca. For those who could not read, there was the storyteller, who would recount the tales of adventure and magic on which Egyptian literature abounds.... ancient Egyptian games .

One of the most popular tales was the Story of Sinuhe, which is set during the Middle Kingdom. Sinuhe was a royal servant who, fearing for hos life for a reason not names, fled Egypt and want to Palestine. After a great many adventures he was befriended by the local king who gave hi, land, a wife and command of the army. He led a long and prosperous life, occasionally fighting off jealous rivals, but in his old age he wished to return to his native land. His wish was granted by Pharaohs and so he returned to Egypt with great honour and was granted a fine house and an elaborate womb with all the trimmings. Another travel tale, tinged with an element of magic, is that of the Shipwrecked Sailor.

A raised-relief depiction of Amenemhat I accompanied by deities; the death of Amenemhat I is reported by his son Senusret I in the Story of Sinuhe.

In this story are features which appear later in the Odyssey and the story of Sindbad the sailor. Like the Odyssey, it seems to belong to ab oral tradition, and to have been part of a cycle of stories, as Sindbad is part of the thousand and one nights. Another group of stories in the thousand and One Nights tradition is to be found in the West-care Papyrus.

This is a serious of tales with a connecting narrative which provides the reason for telling the stories. The theme is again magic and the scene the court of Cheops. Who is being entertained with tales of past wonders? He caps them all, however, by sending for a real magician who astounds the audience with his skill. Allegorical and, moral tales were also popular, such as the Blinding of Truth by Falsehood and the Tale of the Two Brothers. A great many of these stories have been published in translation and make entertaining reading even today.

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Ancient Egyptian Dance and Musical Instruments

Facts and Secrets about Ancient Egyptian Musical Instruments
Dance was also very popular in ancient Egypt, again in both religious and secular spheres. Rhythmic Accompaniment was provided by clapping, clapping, cymbals, tambourines or chanting. Again, dancing was mainly a group activity, Representations vary from slow, postured movement to lyrical, fluid or gymnastic performances.

Ancient Egyptian Dance

Ancient Egyptian Music in some form was an essential accompaniment to the dance , but it was also a recreational and religious art in its own right. Musical scenes are depicted from the Old Kingdom onwards. Although there were always musicians of both sexes, in the Old Kingdom most of those shown are women. One theme that recurs again and again is that of the blind harper, usually male. The Egyptians seem to have lacked a written, ancient Egyptian musical notation so a blind performer would have been at no disadvantage. To gain some idea of the music played it is necessary to study the instruments, many of which survive. They can be divided into three categories- stringed, wind and percussion-and their range increased during the New Kingdom when new varieties were adopted from the Near East.

Stringed instruments comprised the harp, the lyre and the lute. Two varieties of harp are known. The arched, or bow, harp was used from the sixth Dynasty onwards, but the angular harp appeared at the start of the New Kingdom, imported from Asia. The number of strings on these harps varies from four to ten and the size of the instruments is also variable. The strings were attached to the neck by pegs and to the sound box by a suspension rod, secured by a cord which could be adjusted to vary the tone. The harp was played by both mane and workmen. The lute and the lyre both appeared from the Near East during the New Kingdom. The lute consisted of a long wooden neck attached to a sound box, which was made either of wood or, in the case of small examples, a tortoise shell.

Ancient Egyptian flute

A skin was stretched over the box for sounding and the neck had frets onto which the strings were pressed to make the notes, They were played with a plectrum. The lyre had two forms, asymmetrical and symmetrical, and consisted of two arms attached to a sound box. The two arms were joined by a yoke to which the strings were attached by cords, pieces of cloth or papyrus. Both these instruments were played mostly by women, either in orchestras or solo to accompany singers.

Various wind instruments are known, with and without reeds. The flutes of ancient Egypt were played obliquely. They could be made of reed or metal and came in different sizes. Reeded instruments were the clarinet and the oboe, which were played in pairs, on acting as a drone. The oboe tended to replace the clarinet in the New Kingdom and was mostly plated by women. Trumpets were not used in orchestras, but only for military and religious purposes.

Of percussion instruments,those most commonly used in orchestras or for accompaniment wee the tambourine and drum. Clapperboards, bells and sisttra were mostly reserved o religious uses.

The British Museum's collection contains several scenes showing musical groups. The firs is of Old Kingdom dare and shows a male chamber group consisting of a harpist , a flautist and two singers. The New Kingdom scenes show a greater variety of instruments. One depicts a female ensemble at a banquet. The group consists of a large lute, a clapping singer, a smaller lute, a double oboe and a tambourine or drum, A similar banquet scene from a Theban tomb shows a double oboe and three women clapping out a rhythm to accompany two dancers, The final scene depicts a religious procession and indicates the pleasure to be had at a festival which would also have been a holiday. It represents a procession similar to one described by Herodotus, which took place at Bubastis - an occasion of a great joy and frenzy.

The worshipers went to Bubastis in barges, men and women packed in together: on the way some of the women kept up a continual clatter with castanets while some of the men played flutes. The rest sang and clapped their hands. Whenever they passed a town along the bank they brought the barge close inshore, making their ancient Egyptian music . The crowed in the barges yelled good-nature abuse at the women of the place, began to dance about or hitched up their robes to reveal their behinds, On reaching Bubastis they celebrated the festivals with elaborate sacrifices and drank vast quantities of wine.

Ancient Egyptian Sistrum

As already of the main sources if employment for musicians was performing a banquets. Dinner parties seem to have been on of the favorite pastimes of the Ancient Egyptians middle and upper classes, judging by the frequency with which they are depicted in tomb scenes. At the beginning of a feast the guests would be greeted by their hosts and offered flowered garlands by servants. They were also given scented cones for their hair, as described in the previous chapter. Gusts did not sit round a large dining table as we today but small tables at which they were served with food and wine. The hosts and honored gusts sat in chairs, while others sat on stools or cushions. In some scenes the men and women sit separately, while in others they mingle freely. This nay represents the difference between married couples and single gusts. The food and wine was heaped enticingly on stands and tables , almost like a buffet, although servants brought the food to the gusts.

During the meal musicians played and afterwards dancers, or possibly an acrobat, would perform, As the banquet continued, more and more wine was consumed, accompanied by such sentiments as 'Give me eighteen cups of wine, for I should love to drink to drunkenness my inside is as dry as straw'. The end result of such indulgence is also recorded, men and even women being sick into a bowl held by servants and being comforted by their neighbors as the jollity continues.

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Ancient Egyptian Sports and Hunting

The ancient Egyptians were a people who knew how to enjoy themselves, as the great number and variety of pastimes recorded in tomb scenes so vividly illustrates. Indeed, it was to a large extent the intense pleasure which they found in life that encouraged them to seek to continue it after death.

Recreation in Ancient Egypt

Sporting and hunting in Ancient Egypt
Let us begin with the more active, sporting pursuits. Hunting for pleasure in the desert or marshland was the ancient Egyptian sports of Pharaoh, his nobles and the well-to-do. In early days a desert hunt took place on foot, but following the introduction of the chariot the nobleman galloped away in purist of his prey armed as if for war. The technique of hunting was to await or lure a large number of animals to a restricted area, possibly around a water hole, and then attack them en mass with volleys or arrows. The nobleman would be accompanied by professional huntsmen. Hunting dogs were let loose to harry the hapless prey. The early hunting dogs had erect, painted ears, narrow flanks and a short, curled tail, while in the New Kingdom there appeared a breed with pendent ears and long, straight tail, like the modern saluki. A very early hunting scene is shown on the Hunters Palette (c.3300BC). From the early New Kingdom comes another hunting scene, painted on the side of an archery case. Not all hunting culminated in the mass killing, for there are representations f animals being captured alive for display, breeding or possibly taming.

Hunting in the marshes comprised fowling fishing and possibly the killing of hippopotami. The pleasure with which these activities was regarded by the Egyptians is recorded in a very fragmentary papyrus entitled The Pleasures of Fishing and Fowling:' A happy day when we go down to the marsh, that we mat snare birds and catch many fishes in the two waters... a happy day on which we give to everybody and the marsh goddess in propitious. We shall trap birds and shall light a brazier to Sobek.' The text was written by someone who was forced by his position to live away from the rural haunts which he used to frequent in his youth: "Would that I were in the country always that I might do the things that were what my heart desired when the marsh was my town ...'The rest of this fragmentary text comprises enthusiastic description of the huntsman's art which provide an interesting supplement to set-piece scenes which survive in tombs.

'I settle at the ford and make ready for myself a screen after i have fastened my bait. I am in the cool breeze whitest my fishes are in the sun. I kill at every thrust; there is no stop for my spear. I make bundles of 'bulti-fish.' However, our keen fisherman has to admit 'gutting does not please me'. Having caught the fish, he hands over this messy job to a servant or to his poor wife. Many scenes depict this type of fishing. The fisherman lurks in the reeds on a papyrus raft and catches the fish with a harpoon-like spear. Hooks and nets were also available but these were mostly used by pro fessional fishermen.

Ancient Egyptian Hunting and Sports

The papyrus goes on to describe the process of bird trapping :

I walk away from the river in the second day and the fifteenth day of the month and go down to the lake. Staves are on my shoulder, my poles and two and one-fifth cubits (of rope) under my arm. I attend to tugging at five cubits of draw rope by hand. The water is sluggish. The thick cloth which the hand holds, we see it fall after we have heard the quacking of the pool's birds. We snare them in the net.

Another, more sporting way of catching birds is frequently depicted in tombs, such as that of Nakht. Nakht is shown with his family and servants on a light papyrus raft used for moving about in the shallow waters. It is made simply of papyrus reeds tied together, with a wooden platform in the centre in which to balance. In the left of the scene Nakht holds a bird by its feet. This is probably stuffed decoy. In this other hand he holds the instrument of the kill, a throw-stick shaped like a snake, which acted in the same way as a boomerang, to break the bird's neck. His son prepares to hand him another. On the right-hand side of the scene he is town having just cast his weapons, both the one in his hand and another given to him by his hand and another given to him by his daughter. In the miraculous way of tomb painting, both these throw-sticks have found their mark and two birds fall, their necks snapped.

Ancient Egyptian Sports

Athletic games and sports were popular among the ancient Egyptians, whether practiced informally or formally in the presence of the king or as part religious ceremonies. Typical games included wrestling, boxing, fighting with quarter staves, and there are frequently shown as group activities.

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Ancient Egyptian Crafts Part 4/4

Allied to waving was the manufacturing of mats, baskets and rope using read, flax papyrus, palm fiber and grass. Mats were woven on horizontal looms, while baskets were made by coiling a fibrous core spirally into the shape required. Baskets were as common as pottery in the Egyptian home and were used as containers for food; clothing and household linen Nevertheless, a great deal of pottery was made and used by the ancient Egyptians, although it was not a  ancient Egyptian crafts at which they excelled. The best pottery belongs to the late predynastic age, when fine black and red wares were produced, as well as vessels body painted in red on buff. It was not until the Eighteenth Dynasty that painted was reappeared, the most striking examples being blue-painted buff vessels especially common during the reigns of Amenophis III and Akhenaten.

Painted jars crafts from ancient Egypt

Let us return once again to the craftsmen who created some of these works of art in ancient Egypt and take a look at the organization of one particular group about which we have a lot of information: the tomb-builders of Deir el-Medina. These artisans were dived into two groups, the left and the right gangs, which presumably worked on the left- and right*hand sides of the tomb at the same time. The gangs were controlled by two foremen who were appointed by the vizier, although the posts became hereditary. The son of the foreman often became his father's deputy before taking over full responsibility for he gang.

Working with the foreman was an official scribe who administered the activities of the workmen and the village. He oversaw the distribution of tools and materials from the royal stores, carefully registering what was given to each man. He also kept lists of those who were not at work and the reason for their absence and most importantly, her received and distributed the men's wages, below the scribe was a guardian who looked after the official stores, while other guardians acted as watch men over the tomb under construction. These would be supplemented as necessary by the official police of western Thebes, the Medjay.

The main body of the workforce consisted of stonemasons, plasterers, sculptors, draughtsmen, painters and carpenters. They worked for eight days out if ten living in huts above the Valley of the Kings and returning to the village for their two days of rest. During the day they were supposed to work for eight hours with a mid-day meal break but absenteeism was frequent.

Days were lost for such reasons as brewing beer, building houses and drinking, a and these, added to the large number of religious holidays, show that the tomb-builders in fact only worked for about six months of the year. Their payment was in Kind: wheat and barley for making bread and beer, water, fish, vegetables, cosmetic oils, wood for fuel, pottery and clothing. On festival days they were given more elaborate food, including wine, as well as bonuses of oil, salt and meat. In order to help prepare these foodstuffs a number of female slaves were assigned to the village.

At times the delivery of these essentials became irregular or ceased altogether. On several occasions the men actually wet on strike to demand that their wages be sent. Nevertheless, these 'servants of the place of truth', as they were at one time called, were comparatively well of. They used their skills to construct highly decorated tombs for each other. There were also opportunities for moon-lighting-making tombs or funerary equipment for the well-to-do Thebes. Their houses were well appointed and their lists of possessions, as we have already see, could be relatively impressive Of the living standers of other craftsmen and ancient Egyptian crafts we unfortunately know little, but it is to be suspected that by and large they were less comfortable.

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Ancient Egyptian Crafts Part 3/4 - Craft Techniques

Craft techniques  in ancient Egypt

The techniques of sculpting were not very different. The outline of a statue was marked on an appropriate piece of stone with red ochre. The piece was then roughly blocked out and the features modeled. In the case of soft stones such as limestone, chisels could be used as well as saws. Hard, volcanic stones could only be worked with similarly dense materials. The amount of time, patience and manpower used to create a colossal statue of granite almost defies the modern imagination.

Craft techniques  in ancient Egypt

Among other  ancient Egyptian crafts techniques not depicted in the tomb of Apuki and Nebamun, the manufacture of glass and glazed ware is characteristically Egyptian. Glazed composition (faience) is known from the predynastic period onwards. It consists of quartz ground to a fine powder, possibly mixed with a weak solution of natron to make the material malleable. Objects of glazed composition could be formed by hand or on a wheel, but many small pieces were shaped in pottery moulds. The glaze was similar in composition to glass, being made of sand and natron salt. It was probably applied as a fluid coating which fused with the body material on firing, creating an object of great strength; the usual color for the glaze was blue-green or turquoise, created by tee inclusion of copper or malachite. Nevertheless, it was possible to produce other colors: objects of red, white, yellow and green proliferate during the late Eighteenth Dynasty.

Although the glaze used on faience is similar in composition to glass, glass proper was not made in Egypt until the Eighteenth Dynasty and it seems likely that the technique was introduced from Syria. Glass production involved the heating together of quartz and natron with a coloring compound, usually a copper-based blue. The molten glass could be moulded, shaped into rods or formed round a core, but blown glass was not known until the Roman Period. Core-forming involved the creation of a sandy core in the shape of the inside of the intended vessel. This was then dipped into the molten glass and twirled round, creating a skin of uneven thickness which could be worked to the required shape. Bases and handles were added separately. Decoration in different colors was often applied o the form of rods of glass which meted on contact with the hot body of the vessel. A tool drowns across the bars of color created a ripple-pattern effect.

Weaving was another major  ancient Egyptian crafts of the ancient Egyptians, dating back to early predynastic times. The cloth that used was made of linen, and the cultivation and treatment flax has already been described. The linen fiber, having been beaten from the plant, was spun on a stick weighted at one end with a circular whorl, either flat or domed, until the New Kingdom, women alone spun thread, but thereafter men also took part in this operation. The same is true of weaving. The loom in Egypt was at first horizontal, but was replaced by a vertical type during the Second Intermediate Period. A great variety of cloth was produced, from coarse homespun to fine linen, as sheer as muslin, known as byssos. Most cloth was plain, although sometimes pattern of loose threads was woven in.

The Egyptians mastered the techniques of making fine stone vessels at an early date, utilizing the great range of ornamental stone to be found in the desert and hills which border the Nile. A block of stone would be cut to the appropriate dimensions, probably with a saw. The shape of the vessel was then roughly formed with a chisel or a drill. Smoothing followed, using abrasive stone rubbers worked up and down the object. When the outside was completely shaped, the inside was hollowed out. This was achieved using a drill with an offset crank handle at the top, as shown in the scene. The drill was set with a stone bit of flint, limestone, sandstone or diorite shaped for different types of vessel or phases of the work. Some drill bits were formed of copper tubes which could remove cylindrical cores. A chisel could then be used to remove the surrounding martial. Some vessels were made in sections and then cemented together. This applied especially to ornate vessels with narrow mouths. As with bead drilling, emery or quartz was used as an abrasive.

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